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Manjushri 'holding a book' is an iconographic characteristic of several different forms of Manjushri - all of which are meditational deities (yidam, ishtadevata). These forms according to Tantric classification belong to the Kriya, Charya and Yoga Tantras. Early textual descriptions, prior to the 13th century, often place the text of the Prajnaparamita in the left hand and next to the heart of Manjushri.

Over the centuries the depicted iconography of these Manjushri forms changes. The Prajnaparamita book gets moved, relocated, to the top of a blue utpala flower blossoming next to the left ear, with the stem held between the ring finger and thumb, in the right hand of Manjushri. The most popular forms of Manjushri undergo the relocation of the text. Some less popular and much less commonly depicted forms of Manjushri are still described and depicted holding the text but the majority of depictions have adopted the new utpala and Prajnaparamita iconography.

Lachog Sengge, 1468-1535, was a religious teacher, scholar and a patron of the arts. There are numerous examples of paintings in museum and private collections around the world that were commissioned by Lhachog Sengge. The objects are all identified by inscription along the bottom front or on the reverse. Many of the paintings are dedicated to his personal teachers while others are dedicated to lineage teachers of the more distant past.

Manjushri in a relaxed sitting posture is a popular sculptural form in India, Nepal and Tibet. In this iconographic style Manjushri is typically depicted in a seated posture with the right knee raised and the wrist or elbow of the right arm resting atop the knee. The left hand is pressed downward onto the seat slightly behind the horizontal left leg. The upper torso of the body and head generally display a pronounced curve imitating the 'tribanga' form of standing figures.

Both hands can each hold the stem of a flower blossom. Usually the right hand holds a lotus blossom and the left an utpala (lily, iris). In a number of examples the left flower blossom supports a book or text representing the Prajnaparmita Sutras. The sculptural form representing the text on the left flower is sometimes in the shape of a cylinder. This is actually depicting a metal tube which is the outer box or container for the sutra text.

Again, with some examples of Manjushri in this form he is wearing a type of meditation belt extending around the waist on the proper left side and circling the right leg just below the knee.

There are iconographic examples of Avalokiteshvara which an appear very similar to Manjushri as depicted in these examples.

Arhat (Tibetan: ne tan): a Sanskrit term for Buddhist saints, more correctly in Tibetan meaning elder or 'sthavira' in Sanskrit. The arhats  represent the earliest followers of the Buddha, always found depicted in a group of sixteen, they are painted on cloth, wall murals, and fashioned of metal, stone, clay, or wood.

An early iconographic source for the individual descriptions of the arhats is the verse text Praise to the Sixteen Arhats attributed to the Kashmiri teacher Shakyashri Bhadra of the 12th/13th century.

The earliest known paintings in Tibet are found as wall murals in Dratang Monastery in Central Tibet. However, the Dratang arhat paintings do not appear to depict the group of sixteen which gain popularity in Tibetan art some time later.

A gallery of Tibetan Kings and Ministers has been added to the Masterworks Page.

King Appearance in Himalayan and Tibetan art is a specific type of iconographic form included as one of the Eleven Figurative Forms. The principal characteristics are the face often with a stern look achieved by upturned eyebrows, glaring eyes, accompanied by a mustache and goatee. The clothing is heavy and layered with multiple colours, a cloth head covering, or hat, sometimes with a small jeweled crown, and boots on the feet.

There are four important subjects and distinctions to be made with regard to the various types of kings in Himalayan and Tibetan art.

[1] Kings with King Appearance

[2] Kings that don't have King Appearance

[3] Kings that belong to Sets

[4] Deities with King Appearance

In Himalayan and Tibetan art the word 'buddha' can have two general meanings. The first meaning belongs to the religious definition where 'buddha' describes a completely enlightened being having reached the peak of the Ten Bodhisattva Grounds (levels, stages) and progressed further to a 13th level known as complete Buddhahood.

In art 'buddha' also has the secondary meaning of 'Buddha Appearance' which refers to figures that have the form of a buddha as defined by the early Buddhist literature describing the physical characteristics of a buddha such as, for example, the Thirty-two Major and Eighty Minor Marks of Perfection.

Yamari, Krodharaja: this meditational deity is a form of Manjushri but appears with many features of the deities Vajrakila and Guru Dragpur. The descriptive texts and rituals originate with the Nyingma 'Terma' Tradition of the Shang Trom Lineage. The practice was also popularized by the 5th Dalai Lama of the Gelug and follows the Drigung Kagyu Tradition of the practice from the Shang Trom line. Karma Chagme, of the Karma Kagyu, is a prominent 17th century figure in the line of the 2nd lineage of dissemination.

According to the 5th Dalai Lama it was Traba Ngonshe (1012-1090) and Guru Chowang (1212-1270) who first introduced the Five Personal Gods into a Buddhist context. In more modern times it was the 5th Dalai Lama (1617-1682) who wrote a ritual text and popularized the practice. The 4th Panchen Lama, Lobzang Tenapi Nyima (1782-1853), also wrote a liturgical text for the Five Personal Gods. The first known Sakya text was written by Dagchen Kunga Lodro (1729-1783) who clearly states that his writings are based on the text of the 5th Dalai Lama. Kunga Lodro also mentions very clearly in the first few lines of the text that the group of five protector gods belong both to the Bon and Buddhist religions. The 4th Panchen Lama, Tenpa'i Nyima, describes the lineage of practice as originating with Padmasambhva and given directly to Lama Tsongkapa.

The White Chakrasamvara tradition of Lama Umapa describes the deity as having a single face and two arms, embracing a red consort. Both are in a seated posture. The male figure holds two long-life vases in the right and left hands folded around the back of the consort. The consort holds two skullcups in the right and left hands. She is seated with her legs wrapped around the waist of Chakrasamvara.

Lineage: Vajradhara, Manjushri, Pawo Dorje (Umapa), Tsongkapa (1357-1419), Jampel Gyatso, Kedrub Geleg Palzang, Baso Chokyi Gyaltsen, Chokyi Dorje, Lobzang Dondrub, Kedrub Sanggye Yeshe, Lobzang Chokyi Gyaltsen, Konchog Gyaltsen, Panchen Lobzang Yeshe, Lobzang Zopa, Lobzang Palden Yeshe, Lobzang Jampal, etc.

White Chakrasamvara is a meditational deity belonging to the Anuttarayoga classification of Buddhist Tantra. There are also subsidiary forms and practices of White Chakrasamvara that are specifically intended for the prolongation of life span.

The white form of the deity was popularized in Tibet and the Himalayan regions by the Indian teacher Mitra Yogin and the Kashmiri teacher Shakyashri Bhadra. The Mitra Yogin form of the deity is solitary (without a consort), in a standing posture, and part of a twenty-nine deity mandala. This form of the deity can be found in all of the Sarma traditions although practiced less frequently than the Shakyashri Bhadra tradition.

The Shakyashri Bhadra form of the deity is in a standing posture and partnered with Vajrayogini, red in colour. There are no retinue or accompanying mandala figures. The Sakya, Jonang, Kagyu and Gelug traditions mainly follow this tradition of White Chakrasamvara practice. There is also a long life practice associated with this deity, however the appearance remains the same.

The tradition of Lama Umapa, a teacher of Tsongkapa, describes the deity as white with a red consort, both in a seated posture. The male holds two long-life vases in the right and left hands. The consort holds two skullcups in the right and left hands. This form of Chakrasamvara with consort functions as a long life deity, unique to the Gelug Tradition, and appears to have been developed as a Tibetan creation.

The Arts of Tibetan Painting: Recent Research on Manuscripts, Murals and Thangkas of Tibet, the Himalayas and Mongolia (11th-19th century). Edited by Amy Heller.

This collection of articles is a hallmark in publication as Asianart.com's first venture in online publication of a complete volume, comprising 13 articles which stem from the 12th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies (Vancouver 2010). This volume of recent major discoveries and analyses by distinguished scholars of Tibetan and Mongolian art, history, and language is presented in a format accessible to non-specialist readers as well as specialists, copiously illustrated with detail enlargements. [The introduction above is taken from the Asianart website]. (See Table of Contents).

Kurukulla, Goddess of Power, Masterworks Page has been added.

Begtse Chen Masterworks Page has been added.

Marichi, Goddess of the Dawn, Masterworks Page has been added.

Jatson Nyingpo, 1585-1656, ('ja' tshon nying po, las 'phro gling pa): a famous 'treasure revealer' of the Nyingma Terma Tradition. He studied both Nyingma and Sarma, and was a prolific writer with over three hundred texts to his name.

Jatson Nyingpo is typically depicted as monk and wearing a red pandita hat. The right hand holds a vajra sceptre upraised. The left holds outstretched to the side a three sided peg (kila); seated in a circle of flames. The standardized artistic depictions are based on guruyoga textual descriptions.

The long-life deity/ishtadevata, Ushnishavijaya 'Victorious Crown Ornament,' is one of three special long-life deities along with the Buddha Amitayus and White Tara. This group is known as the Three Long Life Deities (Tibetan: tse lha nam sum). There are other deities associated with long life and healing but these three are commonly referred to as the principal deities and form their own group. The three were not formulated in India but rather popularized as a Tibetan iconographic convention.

"...Ushnishavijaya, the colour of an autumn moon, with three faces, white, yellow and blue and eight hands. Each face has three very large eyes. The first right hand holds a vishvavajra, second a white lotus with Amitabha [Buddha] residing, third an arrow and the fourth in [the gesture of] supreme generosity. The first left holds a vajra lasso, second a bow, third [in the gesture of] bestowing protection and fourth in [the gesture of] meditative equipoise holding an auspicious nectar vase; complete with silks and jewel ornaments, seated in [vajra] posture. Within the outer circle of the stupa, on the right [side of the chaitya], above a moon is Avalokiteshvara with a body white in colour, the left hand holds a lotus. On the left [of the chaitya], above a sun is Vajrapani, blue, the left hand holds an utpala with a vajra; standing in a peaceful manner and adorned with silks and jewels." (Jamyang Kyentse Wangpo, 1820-1892).

Vajradaka: A deity of purification from the Vajradaka Tantra belonging to the larger category of the Chakrasamvara Cycle of Tantras.

"...Vajradaka with a body blue-black in colour, one face. With the two hands at the heart performing the King of Desire gesture, the right holds a vajra and left a bell. Possessing three eyes, yellow hair flowing upward, a radiant face and adorned with bones, jewels and the eight great nagas. Wearing a lower garment of tiger skin, with the left leg extended, ..." (Chogyal Pagpa, 1235-1280).

The physical sculpture of Vajradaka is a ritual piece used while performing one of several specific meditations involving purification. At a certain point in the ritual black sesame seeds are inserted into the mouth of the Vajradaka sculpture which then fall through the hollow body of the metal sculpture and onto an incense pot filled with burning embers or coals. The seeds are burnt and the smoke rises upward and dissipates just as the defilements and sins of the practitioner are imagined to be destroyed through the power of the ritual.

The sculpture is made in two pieces. The top piece is the figure of Vajradaka. The bottom piece is the pedestal containing the burning coals. The pedestal is sometimes created with the botttom flush with the surface it stands on and sometimes created as a square box or in the shape of a tripod vessel similar to a Chinese style incense burner. Most examples of Vajradaka sculpture  in museum and private collections are missing the bottom pedestal which holds the burner for the charcoal. (See examples with pedestal: Vajradaka 1 and Vajradaka 2).

Sculptural representations of Vajradaka are generally depicted in either a squatting or seated position with the legs loosely arranged in front. A few examples portray the figure as standing with the right leg bent and the left leg straight. In these cases an added metal structure is placed under the bottom of the figure 'like a small chair or bar stool' which acts as a chute for the sesame seeds falling down and as a chimney for the resulting smoke from the seeds. (See example 1, example 2, and example 3).

Life Story Paintings are compositions that pertain primarily to a single individual and depict a series of narrative vignettes in chronological order relating the [1] life story, [2] partial life story, or [3] significant life event(s).

The two most common life stories to be depicted in Tibetan art are those of Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and Tonpa Shenrab, the founder of the Bon Religion. For Shakyamuni Buddha the subject of life story is further divided into three or four categories. The life story of Tonpa Shenrab is divided into two categories. The two founders are followed by the Eight Great Bodhisattvas, the Six Ornaments and Two Excellent Ones, Padmasambhava, and a few miscellaneous Indian teachers - scholars and mahasiddhas. For the important Tibetan historical figures there are many depictions of life stories such as that of Milarepa, Chogyal Pagpa and Je Tsongkapa.

Life story paintings are depicted in several different formats. A story can be painted as a single composition depicting the entire narrative on a single canvas. The story can be divided into sections and narrated using a number of individual compositions with the full set of paintings depicting the entire narrative. Life story paintings are also commonly depicted as murals in assembly halls or temples. (See Life Story Painting Sets).

Additional images of Puntsog Ling Monastery of Jetsun Taranata have been uploaded courtesy of Uranchimeg Tsultem. Along with Gongkar Chode Monastery of Central Tibet, the wall murals of Puntsog Ling Monastery of Tsang Province are an excellent example of the Khyenri style of Tibetan painting.